The Heartwood: August 2009

The ideal of the Bodhisattva was crucial in the development of the Mahayana branch of the Buddhist tradition. The Mahayana school evolved out of earlier Buddhist thought by breaking away from the Theravada Buddhism’s doctrinaire and conservative view of enlightenment towards a more adaptive and multi-faceted one. It has often been remarked that the two pre-eminent contributions of the Mahayana to the spiritual treasury of Buddhism are the metaphysic of sunyata and the Bodhisattva Ideal. The thesis will be a study of the Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. It will address the following topics: the transition from oral to written transmission of doctrines in the early Buddhist tradition; the emergence of new doctrines (such as emptiness (sunyata) and the Three Bodies (Trikaya)) and treatises (such as the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna paramita) literature) that form the conceptual spine of the Mahayana school of thought; the religious and philosophical significance of the Bodhicitta or “thought-of-enlightenment” said to be the initiatory spark of The Bodhisattva Path; and an investigation of The Bodhisattva Path itself including, most importantly, critical analyses of the six ethical and psychological perfections (paramitas) namely charity, morality, forbearance, diligence, meditation and wisdom.

The formation of the Bodhisattva ideal was a crucial factor in the development of the Mahayana branch of the Buddhist tradition. The Mahayana school evolved out of earlier Buddhist thought. With the introduction of new doctrines and beliefs, the Mahayana broke away from the Theravada’s doctrinaire and conservative view of Enlightenment towards a more adaptive and forward -thinking one. It has often been remarked that the two pre-eminent contributions of the Mahayana to the spiritual treasury of Buddhism are the metaphysic of sunyata and the Bodhisattva ideal. To these might be added the Mahayanist doctrine of the Trikaya, the Three Bodies of the Buddha, which stratifies the reality of Awakening across three major domains, the meta-cosmic, the cosmic and the phenomenal. While the Mahayana revered the Tripitaka (Sanskrit, lit. three baskets) of the Theravada canon, it added its own new scriptures to advance its special emphasis on these three doctrines and to create an atmosphere that enabled laymen to strive for Enlightenment. The vow of the Bodhisattva, to forego Nirvana until all beings have been released from suffering, was especially pivotal in the development of the Mahayana. It reflected a shift from Theravada’s arhat[1] ideal of private attainment of Nirvana to one in which the goal of Nirvanic wisdom was tempered by an altruistic striving for the universal deliverance of all beings.

The great aim of the Mahayana, then, is to attain Buddhahood for the benefit all living beings and its Bodhisattva Path supersedes the Eightfold Path as the great means for the cultivation and development of compassion (karuna) and wisdom (prajna) crucial to eliminating suffering. The path of the Bodhisattva requires a profound intention to abandon all unwholesome action and to develop through meditation a liberating realization of the interdependence of all beings. To accomplish this aim the practitioner first generates and maintains Bodhicitta (the thought of Enlightenment), by taking the Bodhisattva Vow and then reinforcing the vow by practicing the Six Perfections. My thesis is an attempt to understand how the Bodhisattva doctrine arose in early Buddhist thought and to understand the nature and dynamics of the Bodhisattva path within the wider context of Mahayana Buddhism. This will include an attempt to analyze the nature of the sunyata, realization of which is reputed to be the very substance of a Bodhisattva’s Enlightenment.
The Rise of the Mahayana

No great religion is a dead, static formula for salvation; it is constantly evolving and dynamic. Historically, disciples try to render explicit all that was implicit in the original teachings of the founder as well as contribute congruent new ideals and ideas and so it was for the early Buddhist community. Buddhist scholars tell us that approximately a hundred years after Buddha’s Parinirvana[2], the Buddhist monastic community convened in order to decide on the exact nature of the Dharma (doctrine) and the Vinaya [3] (rules of discipline and community living). The Buddha had taught for decades, transmitting a vast amount of knowledge. Now the monastic community had to interpret and preserve his teachings, in accord with Buddha’s saying, “You must be your own lamps, be your own refuges… Work out your own salvation with diligence.”[4]

The original doctrines did not exist in written form. They subsisted only in the memory of the monks and those memories were starting to diverge. Therefore it was the objective of this first Council to recite the Buddha’s words (Sutras) from memory and codify monastic rules in order to formulate his teachings accurately and preserve them in writing for the first time. There were a series of councils in early Buddhist centuries, but it was in the fifth century B.C. that the Council of Rajagraha established at least two of the three divisions or “baskets” (pitaka)[5] of teachings.

Since the Buddha’s teachings were at this time a matter of memory, disagreements about the accuracy of specific memories gave rise to debate and division in the monastic community. It was the fourth Buddhist council which convened around 100 AD at Jalandhar (modern Kashmir), which is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council and it is sometimes called the "council of heretical monks." This council did not rely on the original Pali Canon (the Tripitaka). Instead, sets of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures were rewritten in the classical language of Sanskrit, to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought. The characteristics of this new form of Buddhism were characterized by an almost God-like treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha-nature and should aspire to Buddhahood. Though there were many distinct Buddhist sects, two main schools of thought came to dominate the developing tradition, the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) and the Theravada (Way of the Elders).

The Mahayana and the Theravada share a commitment to the central teachings of the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the taking of the Triple Refuge.[6] However, key points distinguish them. John M. Koller suggests that the Mahayana and Theravada provide different answers to seven essential questions, namely: Who is the Buddha? Which are the essential teachings? Who is a member of the Buddhist community? At what ideal should one aim? What path should one follow? In what does one have faith? And what is the nature of reality?[7]

The Mahayana’s distinctive answers to these questions took shape between 150 BCE and 100 CE. To the question, “Who is the Buddha,” the Mahayana asserted that the historical Buddha, Siddhartha, was but one of innumerable manifestations of an eternal and transcendent Buddha-nature. The Theravada viewed the Buddha first and foremost as the historical person, Siddhartha Gautama, who achieved Enlightenment in the sixth century BCE.[8] They held that as an earthly being, he achieved Enlightenment releasing himself from the cycle of samsara and thereby attained complete liberation. The historical Buddha, according to the Theravada, had overcome every kind of craving (trishna) and although he still had pleasant and unpleasant sensations, he was not ruled by them. He lived his life as an ascetic who wondered teaching the Dharma which was founded on the experience of his Enlightenment, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

The Theravada believed that the Buddha’s essential teachings were contained in Tripitaka. Though the Mahayana accepted these scriptures as correct, they gave emphasis to the Buddha’s teaching by example, specifically, the practice of compassion as shown by the Buddha towards all living beings and the importance he placed upon alleviating suffering. Because the Mahayana saw the Buddha as the embodiment of all-inclusive truth and enlightenment, they believed his teachings must be presented in different forms at different times according to the differing needs of people.[9] For the Mahayanists then, the Theravada literature was only a primer. The essential teachings of the Buddha were recorded in new literature, the Mahayana Canon, of which we will have more to say. In order to qualify these new teachings as authentic doctrines of the Buddha, the Mahayanists claimed that these scriptures had been recovered rather then created after the Buddha’s death.

The sangha is the monastic order or community in the Buddhist religion. Generally, the term encompasses both the lay and the monastic communities. According to the Theravada, the primary members of the sangha, the monks and nuns, known as 'noble disciples' (ariyasangha),[10] have to adhere to ethical principles and disciplines, particularly with regard to the ordination. Without living the life of a monastic, it is held that the layperson was inferior and incapable of attaining Nirvana, since he or she could not follow the austere rules outlined by the vinaya. Some writers of Sanskrit literature state that life in the home has “hindrances while the monk’s life is like open air.”[11] In contrast, the Mahayana elevated the layperson. Mahayanists held that by way of upaya (skill in means) and the Bodhisattva career, the layperson was capable of attaining Enlightenment without having to live the life of an ascetic. According to the Mahayana tradition, many great Bodhisattvas had been lay people. Mahayana literature routinely asserts that the layperson can attain profound enlightenment. Conze states, “In its essence and inner core, Buddhism was and is a movement of monastic ascetics. A laity is, however, indispensable to it…as Buddhism grew…the lay-followers became increasingly important.”[12]

One of the most significant distinctions between the two Buddhists schools is the goal of the practitioner. According to commonly held theoretical models the goal of Mahayana practitioner is to become a Buddha by following the path of the Bodhisattva, whereas the goal of the Theravada practitioner is to become a Buddha by following the path of the arhat. The ultimate goal of the Theravadin practice is to attain the state of an arhat, which is synonymous with Buddhahood. Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist practice, the arhat’s main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve liberation (Nirvana) for oneself. The Mahayana viewed the arhat as selfish and looked to the life of Buddha to support its philosophy that the ultimate goal of the path is to become a Bodhisattva, one who, while on the brink of liberation, forgoes Nirvana to return the world to save all sentient beings. Buddha stated, “Go your ways, oh monks, for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the good, benefit and happiness of gods and men”[13]and the Mahayana placed commitment to minister to the world at the very heart of its spirituality.

The path of the Theravada is defined by the practice of morality, meditation and knowledge which encapsulates the Noble Eightfold Path as a way to overcome suffering therefore ending samsara. The Mahayana reformulated this as the path of the Paramitas (perfections) as obtainable by the means of the Bodhisattva Path, which will lead all beings towards Enlightenment. Theravada Buddhism emphasized faith (sraddha) in the historical Buddha, the truth of his teachings and the power of the sangha to aid the practitioner to progress on the path, where as the Mahayana added a host of celestial beings who had attained Enlightenment and now held sovereignty over the world. Faith and devotion towards these celestial beings was thought to aid the practitioner in attaining Enlightenment.

Koller’s seventh question, “What is the nature of reality?” will detain us for sometime for the Mahayana’s answer to it is complex indeed. Yet, without an understanding of its cosmology an adequate understanding of its Bodhisattva doctrine is impossible. It is to this subject we now turn.
Overview of Mahayana Cosmology
The Wheel of Becoming

As long as our actions are dominated by anger, ignorance and pride, we are lost in a world of illusions, spinning in an endless cycle from which we will not escape.[14]

Figure 1 Wheel of Becoming

Even the earliest Buddhists, following the traditions of their Indian fore-fathers, saw the universe as infinite in time and space and filled with an infinite number of worlds like our own.[15] This is how it looked. Above our ordinary world, there were two realms: the realm of form (rupa-dhatu) and the even higher realm of formlessness (arupa-dhatu). Below these is our world, the realm of desire (kama-dhatu), which contains six domains (gatis), each with its own kinds of beings: Devas or gods, asuras (demons),[16] humans, animals, pretas (hungry ghosts) and narakas (hell beings). All of the realms are in samsara, imperfect existence, and therefore governed by karma and its fruits (vipaka).

The historical Buddha realized that “a person’s life is not self-contained and unchanging at its core,” but instead, “a continuous process of change, rising and falling through interdependence with numerous other processes.”[17] The Buddha described the dependence of all phenomena upon causes and conditions thusly: When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not become to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases. This process, known as “Interdependent Arising” (Pratitya Samutpada), or the twelve links of the chain of conditioned genesis, is the engine of Buddhist Cosmology, the very generator of all these realms. Pratitya Samutpada and karma are directly complicit in both to bondage to and liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). These twelve links, pictured around the rim of the wheel, can be read either in a forward or reverse order, either emphasizing the arising or ceasing of human bondage. Each link depends upon the one before or after it; therefore, when in motion toward liberation, when ignorance ceases, when disposition ceases dispositions cease consciousness ceases, and so on all the way to aging and dying that cease when rebirth ceases, ending, the cycle of samsara.

The Wheel of Life thus didactically represents the drama of personal choice and consequence. Each reincarnation of a being into of one of these realms is determined by his or her karma, the sum of all acts, reactions and mental activity in the previous life. The whole wheel is held in the mouth and claws of Mara,[18] who represents impermanence and death. As already stated, the outside edge of the wheel depicts the twelve stages of dependent arising and ceasing. In the hub of the wheel, there are the representations of the three poisons: the rooster symbolizing desire, the snake, anger and the pig, delusion. These poisons are considered the driving forces of the cycle of existence. An individual's response to these forces generates karma, which determines where on the wheel he will be reborn. If these poisons can be overcome through the attainment of knowledge and wisdom, then release from the necessity for further rebirths can be achieved. This deliverance from samsara is Nirvana.[19] The Wheel of Life illustrates important aspect of Buddhist cosmology. Another aspect, especially important to Mahayana doctrine is the Three Bodies of the Buddha. To this we now turn.
Trikaya Doctrine

“Dharmakaya is like the sun, sambhogakaya is like the rays and nirmanakaya is like the rays hitting the objects on the earth. Nirmanakaya is the physical situation and sambhogakaya and dharmakaya are the level of mind.”[20]

The Trikaya or "Three bodies” doctrine is an extremely influential Mahayana Buddhist teaching on both the nature of reality and the nature of Buddha. Trikaya is a Sanskrit word used to refer to three levels of Buddhahood’s manifestation or activity. According to the Trikaya Doctrine, “Buddha” is a reality with a three-fold nature: the dharmakaya (the body of ultimate Truth), the sambhogakaya (body of bliss) and the nirmanakaya (emanation body, i.e. physical embodiment such as the historical Buddha).[21].

The Mahayana taught that while the historical Buddha appeared to be born, live and die; this physical form was merely created by the eternal Buddha-nature (Dharmakaya) out of its compassion for suffering beings. Siddhartha Gautama was viewed as an embodiment of the Dharmakaya’s compassion, who used skill-in-means (upaya) to do whatever was necessary to bring sentient beings to enlightenment. Mahayana thinkers, in contrast to their Theravadin brethren, concluded that the ultimate referent of the term “Buddha” was this transcendent reality (Dharmakaya). It is the ultimate Absolute Reality, the essence of the universe, the formless totality of existence and a synonym for Reality as such, which includes everything material and immaterial within it. All types of phenomena, all beings, everything seen and unseen can be considered emanations of this ‘Divine Ultimate Source.’

The Sambhogakaya is that aspect of the ultimate Buddha nature, or Dharmakaya, that one meets in visions and in deep meditation. It is a grosser form of the Dharmakaya but a subtler form of the Emanation Body (Nirmanakaya). As Sambhogakaya, the eternal Buddha-nature manifests itself in an infinite number of forms which appears all places and times according to the different needs of sentient beings.[22] This belief is crucial to the Mahayana Bodhisattva Path because it encompasses the idea that reality contains a benevolent omnipotence that responds to the needs of all suffering beings.[23] The Sambhogakaya is also to be said the archetypal form of the historical Buddha through which the latter can be perceived by Bodhisattvas who achieve advanced levels of consciousness. Let us look at just a few Bodhisattvas, out of the infinitely vast pantheon, which are influential to the Mahayana tradition.
Cosmic Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: The Realm of the Sambhogakaya

Avalokitesvara, think of me.
Look upon me from the realm of sambhogakaya, luminosity.
Pacify completely the suffering of the six realms.
Shake us from the depths of the three realms of samsara.[24]

While Theravada Buddhism focuses almost exclusively on the Buddha as a human being who taught a method for attaining Enlightenment, the Mahayana tradition projects an elaborate pantheon of spiritual beings and cosmic forces that are the objects of worship and devotion. They represent various aspects of the enlightened consciousness and for the Mahayana are guides to spiritual transformation. The key purpose of cosmic Buddhas and Bodhisattvas is said to be to enable the practitioner to tap onto the innate qualities that exists within the self to aid in spiritual growth. They are said to help draw out qualities that are already within the practitioner.

Many sutras name many of these celestial beings: Amitabha, Aksobhya and Vairocana, associating them with various spiritual qualities, which represent the Buddha-nature as an object of devotion. For example, Vairochana represents wisdom, Akshobhya, mirror like wisdom, Ratnasambhava, equanimity, Amitabha, discriminating awareness and Amoghasiddhi, all-accomplishing wisdom.

Avalokitesvara

Compassion sets in motion an exponential multiplication of our powers.

We might even feel as though we have the powers of a thousand arms, a thousand eyes and nine heads of Buddha…[25]

Figure 2 Avalokitesvara

In response to the Theravada exalting wisdom over karuna (compassion), the Mahayanist sought to restore the balance by placing much more emphasis on the latter. Within the vast pantheon of Bodhisattvas figures, one of the most important is Avalokitesvara,[26] who is thought of as the embodiment of mercy and compassion. The Pali verb soloketi translates as “to look down or over”, or “to look at, to examine.” The word avolokita would then mean “the lord who sees the world with pity.”[27]

Avalokitesvara is often depicted with many heads and arms, the former symbolizing his ability to see the suffering of all beings and the latter his ability to serve all beings. Mahayana doctrine tells us that Avalokitesvara made a great vow to listen to the prayers of all sentient beings in times of difficulty to eliminate suffering and postponed his own Buddhahood until he has helped every being on earth achieve Enlightenment, “down to the last blade of grass.”[28] Often associated with The Heart Sutra, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva practices the profound prajna-paramita (perfection of wisdom) and contemplates and sees the emptiness of the five skandhas (the five fundamental conditions of passions and delusions) and thus attains deliverance from all suffering. This signifies that the surpassing prajna paramita cannot be reached through concepts, but can be reached through the intuitional wisdom of seeing things as they are.

In meditative visualizations, practitioners imagine themselves to be Avalokitesvara thereby reducing and eventually removing the fixation on their personal self. This in turn results in an expression of loving kindness and compassion towards others. In most religious traditions, one prays to the deities in the hopes of receiving their blessing, which will benefit one in some way. In the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, the blessings and the power of the superlative qualities of the enlightened beings are not considered as coming from outside, but are believed to be Maitreyainnate aspects of the practitioners own true nature.

Maitreya

I am Maitreya, the Buddha of the sun
I shine with equal love upon all
I am called the coming Buddha not because I will manifest in physical form
But because I come to those at advanced stages of the spiritual path
and say: "Be blessed friends and give blessings."
I am called the Buddha of friendship

For I take all beings as equals
And do not accept the hierarchies of institutions.[29]

Figure 3 Maitreya

Maitreya is comparable to the savior in second coming prophecies of other religions. According to the Mahayana tradition, the period of the Buddhist Law is divided into three stages: a first period of five hundred years of the turning the Wheel of Dharma, a second period of one thousand years of the deterioration of the dharma, and a third period of three thousand years during which no one practices the dharma. Buddhism will then have virtually disappeared, but eventually a new Buddha, Maitreya, will appear and will again turn the Wheel of Dharma. [30]

Maitreya means “Loving One” and according to the Mahayana is the embodiment of all-encompassing love. He is often depicted on a raised seat with his feet resting on the ground as a sign of readiness to arise from his seat to appear to the world. It is said he is a Bodhisattva who will eventually appear on earth in the future as the fifth and final earthly Buddha. Maitreya represents hope. Through him, Conze states, “Salvation became a hope of the remote future not only for laity but for monks as well.”[31] The Mahayana believed that those who look to Maitreya will lose their doubts and cravings and that Maitreya's teachings will lead them to a holy life.[32]Maitreya is the only celestial Bodhisattva recognized by the sects of the Theravada school. He is represented standing or seated: when seated, as an ornamented Buddha, with long thin hair on the shoulders or tied in a chignon on his head and his hands in Dharmacakra mudra, or when standing Vitarka and Varada mudras.[33]

Manjushri

Your dragon-thunder proclamation of the Dharma arouses us from the stupor of our delusions and frees us from the iron chains of our karma. Your powerful sword of wisdom hews down suffering wherever its sprouts appear, clearing away the darkness of all ignorance.[34]

Figure 4 Manjushri

Manjushri means 'gentle glory' and is a Bodhisattva who represents wisdom. His task is to incite investigation into such topics as Emptiness, free will and the nature of the self and to lead beings to the true nature of reality. He is viewed both as a historical Bodhisattva and as an emanation of Vairochana, a primordial Buddha that is often compared to the sun, whose nature is everywhere. He is usually depicted displaying two tools essential to that investigation: in his right hand, he wields the double-edged sword of logic or analytic discrimination and in his left, the Prajna paramita Sutra, the text of the teaching on Emptiness, which is cushioned on the lotus of compassion. It is said that:

Seventy myriad eons ago and seventy-two hundred billion Buddha-fields to the east of the world, Manjushri was a pious king who offered worship to the Tathagata and aroused the Bodhicitta. He resolved to pursue an endless but unhurried career toward Awakening, staying in samsara as long as there remained even one being to be saved. Although he has now fulfilled all the virtues of Buddha, he has not yet considered being one, although eventually he will.[35]

Samantabhadra

All that appears and exists, all of samsara and nirvana, has one ground, two paths and two results. It is the display of awareness and ignorance.[36]

Figure 5 Samantabhadra

Samantabhadra means Universal Virtue or Universally Auspicious and is the Bodhisattva of Great Conduct although some esoteric traditions regard him as a primordial Buddha. He forms the Mahayana Buddhist trinity together with Shakyamuni and fellow disciple Manjushri.[37] He is often depicted riding a six-tusked elephant. The elephant's six tusks represent the six paramitas: Charity, Morality, Patience, Diligence, Meditation and Wisdom. Samantabhadra therefore embodies all of the practices and merits which must be perfected in order to attain Buddhahood. He is the patron of The Lotus Sutra and according to the Avatamsaka (The Flower Ornament) Sutra, in the section called the Gandavyuha (Flower Array); he originated the ten great vows,[1] which are the basis of a Bodhisattva Path.[38]

Ksitigarbha

Not until the hells are emptied will I become a Buddha;
Not until all beings are saved will I certify to Bodhi.[39]

Figure 6 Ksitigarbha

Ksitigarbha whose name means “Earth Encompasser” is known as the Great Vow Bodhisattva. Primarily, he is the Bodhisattva who vowed to postpone Nirvana until all those beings trapped in hell-worlds are free. Ksitigarbha, moved by compassion, is said to have made the wish to renounce the status of Buddha until the advent of Maitreya. His mission is to lighten the burdens caused by previous evil actions, to secure from the judges of hell an alleviation of the fate of the condemned and to console them.[40]

Iconographically, Ksitigarbha is typically depicted with a shaven head, dressed in a monk's simple robes (unlike most other Bodhisattvas, who are dressed like Indian royalty). In his left hand, Ksitigarbha holds the wish-granting jewel Cintamani; in his right hand, he holds a monk's staff called a shakujo in Japanese (jingle staff), which is used to alert insects and small animals of his approach, so that he will not accidentally harm them. Such a staff is traditionally carried by high ranking monks of Chinese Buddhist temples. Ksitigarbha will sometimes be seen wearing a crown depicting the Five Wisdom Buddhas;[41] a similar crown is worn by high ranking monks.

Tara

Here there is no man, there is no woman, No self, no person and no consciousness. Labeling ‘male or ‘female’ has no essence, but deceives the evil-minded worlds. And she made the following vow; there are many who desire Enlightenment in a man’s body, but none who work for the benefit of sentient beings in the body of a woman. Therefore, until samsara is empty, I shall work for the benefit of sentient beings in a woman’s body.[42]

Figure 7 Green Tara

Tara, a female Buddha, is arguably the most popular goddess in the Buddhist pantheon. She is considered the goddess of universal compassion and enlightened activity. The word Tara itself is derived from the root ‘tri’ (to cross), hence the implied meaning: ‘the one who enables living beings to cross the Ocean of Existence and Suffering.’ Her compassion for living beings, her desire to save them from suffering, is said to be even stronger than a mother's love for her children. She also brings about longevity, protects earthly travel and guards her followers on their spiritual journey to enlightenment.

According to the Tara Tantra, Tara was born eons ago as a king's daughter. A kind-hearted princess, she regularly gave offerings to the monks and nuns. She thus developed great merit and the monks told her that, because of her spiritual attainments, they would pray that she be reborn as a man and spread Buddhist teachings. She responded that in reality there was no male and no female, that these distinctions are empty and that she wished to remain in female form to serve other beings until everyone reached enlightenment, thus nullifying the monks’ assumption that great teachers were necessarily male.

Tara is typically depicted as a dark green-skinned girl and has her right foot extended as if about to rise. Her left hand, in the gesture of granting refuge, holds the stem of a blue water lily or utpala that waves over her left shoulder, while her right hand, also holding a flower, offers that which is a boon. According to the first Dalai Lama (1391-1474) her hands with their blue utpalas signal, "Samsaric beings! Cling not to worldly pleasures. Enter the great city of liberation! … Homage to you!” [43] The Mahayana believes that Green Tara helps to overcome fear and anxiety and can grant wishes, eliminate suffering of all kinds, and bring happiness. When called upon, she instantaneously saves being from calamities.

Vajrapani

Wanderer along the path to heaven
My task is to aid you
If you are pure, my sword and knowledge
Are at your disposal
If you yearn after purity, yet cannot escape
The barbed tendrils and strangling life-slime
Meditate upon me, for my life is virtuous and my mind is free
Like an icy mountain lake, or a clear autumn evening
No illusions may exist around me. [44]

Figure 8 Vajrapani

Vajrapani, the manifestation of all the Buddhas' power, is one of the earliest Bodhisattvas of Mahayana Buddhism. He is the protector and guide of all the Buddhas. Vajrapani appears extensively in Buddhist iconography as one of the three protective deities surrounding the Buddha.[45] His taut posture is the active warrior pose (pratayalidha) and his outstretched right hand brandishes a vajra. The vajra is a five-pronged scepter, which represents the combination of wisdom and compassion. In his left hand, he skillfully holds a lasso with which he binds demons. He wears a skull crown; he has a wrathful expression and a third eye. Around his neck is a serpent necklace and his loin cloth is made of the skin of a tiger, whose head can be see on his right knee. Though the appearance of Vajrapani is demonic, devotees view him as angelic. For the aspiring human bodhisattva, Vajrapani is an archetypal deity of fierce determination and symbolizes unrelenting effectiveness in the conquest of negativity.[46]

Prajnaparamita (Yum-Chenmo)

Figure 9 Yum Chenmo

Her right hand holds a gold drum,
Its beat resounds through the universe.
From the supreme domain of awakening, the realm of totality,
Her offspring gather, awakened ones, awakening beings and masters,
Coming like flower petals swirling in the wind.
All of them are absorbed into Only Mother's body.[47]

In Mahayana Buddhism, the Perfection of Wisdom sutras were elevated to objects of devotion and eventually became symbolized in the form of a great celestial female being, a magnificent Bodhisattva named Prajnaparamita. Her Sanskrit name means ‘Perfection of Wisdom’; in Tibetan, she is also known as Yum Chenmo, or 'Great Mother,’ is often referred to as “mother of all Buddhas” to emphasize the sutras’ great importance. Usually she appears as a tranquil seated figure clothed in silks; her body is gold in color and she has one face and four arms. Her first two arms are held in meditation posture in her lap, while the other right hand holds a vajra (thunderbolt scepter symbolizing compassion and bliss) and the left, the text of the Heart Sutra, which summarizes the essential message of the Prajna paramita teachings on sunyata or emptiness. With the Perfection of Wisdom, we enter the atmosphere of emptiness, that peculiar and all-important Mahayana conception, which along with the Trikaya provides the basis for a true understanding of the Bodhisattva.
The Doctrine of Sunyata

Avalokiteshvara, the Holy Lord and Bodhisattva, was moving in the deep course of the Wisdom, which has gone beyond. He looked down from on high, He beheld but five heaps and He saw that in their own-being they were empty. Here, O Sariputra, form is emptiness and the very emptiness is form; emptiness does not differ from form, form does not differ from emptiness, whatever is emptiness, that is form, the same is true of feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness.[48]

While many Mahayana writings are concerned with karuna (compassion), the profoundly influential Perfection of Wisdom Sutra emphasizes wisdom. It is wisdom of a very specific sort: the wisdom of sunyata (emptiness). The doctrine of emptiness calls attention to the absence of inherent existence in processes that are mutually dependent. It is another way of expressing the interdependence of phenomenon that the Buddha called dependent origination. Whereas earlier Buddhist teaching focused on the impermanence of phenomena, the doctrine of emptiness teaches that all phenomena are essentially void and are, therefore, essentially one. Even samsara and Nirvana are ultimately the same.[49]

Western scholars believe that the doctrine was developed about the first century BCE derived from Shakyamuni’s inspirational experience and therefore attributed to him. According to Mahayana legend, the Perfection of Wisdom sutra, recorded by the Buddha himself, was taken from the human realm by the gods and asuras only to be returned later. This ‘temporary hiding’ was said to be prophesied by the Buddha, the reason being that the developing societies at that time needed years of monastic preparation and purification by way of disciplined meditation before they could be safely entrusted with the profound liberation the teaching provides.[50]

The original Prajna paramita text, called the ‘Great Mother.’ consisted of ten thousand lines. It is seen as a defining point in Buddhist thinking and considered “a vast maturing in Buddhist mind and heart after five hundred years of intensive meditation and realization” following Shakyamuni’s parinirvana. It is said to create “a heightened poetic and heart-melting devotional atmosphere.”[51]

There are two of the Prajna paramita texts that are singled out as being the “holiest of the holy,” The Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Diamond Sutra is known in Sanskrit as the Vajracchedika Prajna paramita, the “Perfection of Wisdom that cuts like a thunderbolt.” It is thought that the Vajracchedika Prajna paramita reflects the brilliancy and clarity of Buddha’s mind. As a teacher, the Buddha “intuited the manifold doubts of his students” and like a diamond cutter, cut them away with precision before those doubts could fully manifest. This Sutra too is able to sever the doubts of students with diamond-like precision—thus the nickname “Diamond” and to enable the fledging Bodhisattvas to enter the door of the Perfection of Wisdom.[52]

The Bodhisattva Path requires the skillful balance of two contradictory forces, wisdom and compassion. In her wisdom, the Bodhisattva sees no persons; in her compassion, she is resolved to save them. The Bodhisattva’s ability to combine these contradictory attitudes is the source of her greatness. The Diamond Sutra perfectly illustrates this combination of attributes and states that a Bodhisattva should think thus:

As many beings as there are in the universe of beings—be they egg-born, or born from a womb, or moisture born, or miraculously born; be they of form, or without; be they with perception, without perception, or with neither perception not no perception –as far as any conceivable universe of beings is conceived; all these should be said to be led to Nirvana, into the realm of Nirvana which leaves nothing behind. And yet, although innumerable beings have thus been led to Nirvana, no being at all has been led to Nirvana. And why? If in a Bodhisattva the perception of a being should take place, he would not be called an enlightened being (bodhisattva).[53]

Thus, two things are needful to the Bodhisattva, “Never to abandon any beings and to see into the truth that there are no beings because all things are empty.”[54]

The Heart Sutra serves as a sort of summarization of the Prajna paramita sutra’s attempt to reveal the very heart of reality. Its speaker is Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of compassion, who will nevertheless reveal the wisdom with which compassion must be tempered. He teaches that in a human being there is nothing that lies outside the five skandhas and that the five skandhas are empty of own-being. Avalokitesvara addresses Shariputra,[55] who in this text is a representative of the Theravada school, whose adherents do not fully understand emptiness. The Bodhisattva famously states, "Form is emptiness, emptiness is form." Avalokiteshvara then goes through some of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings and explains that they are simply statements about reality; they are not reality itself and are therefore not true in the highest sense. In other words, the aspiring Bodhisattva cannot rely on mere words. All reality is the nonexistence of diversified form and reality, in truth, does not comprise any realm. [2]

In the Heart Sutra, Avalokiteshvara is engaged in the practice of transcendental wisdom, which embodies the religious imagination of the Mahayana. He is the ideal Buddhist, one who strives to win enlightenment, but because of ultimate karuna, is unwilling to enter the bliss state unless he can take all of creation with him.

The Perfection of Wisdom sutras are revered because they succeed in:

…accomplishing the impossible, expressing the inexpressible, and making trans-verbal enlightened reality accessible to the verbally cultivates mind. They [The Prajna paramita Sutras] constantly deconstruct themselves as they go along, proclaiming that their teaching is not a teaching at all, that there is not attainment, no attainer, no understanding, no understander, but importantly, no nonattainer nor nonunderstander either.[56]

This ‘knowing wisdom’ is at the very heart of the Bodhisattva Path. It is the key to the development of intelligent compassion and to the elimination of suffering for all sentient beings. With a general understanding of The Perfections of Wisdom literature behind us, we will now embark upon a study of the path of the Bodhisattva.
The Mahayana Bodhisattva Ideal
The Mahayana Bodhisattva

May those who are suffering abide in happiness. I am the medicine for the sick. May I be both the doctor and their nurse, until the sickness does not recur. May I avert the pain of hunger and thirst with showers of food and drink. May I become both drink and food in the intermediate aeons of famine. May I be the inexhaustible treasure for impoverished beings. May I wait upon them with various forms of offering. See, I give up without regret my bodies, my pleasures and my good acquired in all three times, to accomplish good for every being.[57]

“Bodhisattva” literally means enlightenment being. Bodhi is derived from the root budh and its related meaning is “to know, understand.” The term sattva can be traced back to the Vedic word satvan, which means “a strong or valiant man, hero and warrior.” [58] Terms such as bodhi-being, heroic being, or spiritual warrior are often used to define the Bodhisattva. The Mahayana defines the Bodhisattva as one who strives to gain bodhi while renouncing the final deliverance of Nirvana, in to help his fellow sentient beings in the world. It is held that a Bodhisattva is a being whose life is dedicated to the attainment of Enlightenment for the benefit of others and capable of leading others to the same dedication. The Bodhisattva is the influential figure in Mahayana Buddhism.

It is obvious to the Mahayanist, who believes in reincarnation, that Gautama did not come into the world for the first time at 563 BCE. As a Bodhisattva he had already gone through many rounds of rebirths and accumulated vast amounts of merit. The Bodhisattva career was a defiant reaction to the early Buddhist reverence for the arhat. An arhat was one who was liberated, and who knew he would not be reborn. He had accomplished what was to be done. He had been able to lay down his burden and thus attain final emancipation of mind and body. However, the Mahayana felt that in this conception of Buddhist’s development certain aspects were being neglected. They viewed the arhat ideal as too self-centered and not interested in servicing ordinary people.

Dayal tells us that the Bodhisattva Ideal can only be understood against the background of the Theravada’s monastic community “… [which was a] saintly and serene, but inactive and indolent monastic Order.”[59] In reaction to this inactivity Mahayanists developed the practice of what Conze terms the Unlimited.[60] This trained the Mahayana monks not to discriminate between themselves and others. The Unlimited, (apramana) refers to four great virtues that can be limitlessly cultivated: Friendliness, Compassion, Sympathetic-Joy and Even-Mindedness. In effect these virtues reduce the boundary lines between oneself and other people. They develop from two pre-eminent methods of practice. The first is their direct cultivation through acts and emotions of friendliness and compassion. The second is the meditative practice of detachment from the ideas of “I” or “mine” or “self.” This is done by developing an awareness that whatever one thinks and feels is actually the interplay of impersonal forces called dharmas.[61] These two methods are paradoxical because meditation on the dharmas dissolves other people and oneself into a conglomeration of impersonal and instantaneous dharmas. Since it reduces beings to impersonal heaps, this method, if not counterbalanced, leave nothing on which friendliness and compassion could work. “One cannot wish well to a Dharma which is gone by the time one has come to wish it well, nor can one pity a Dharma—say a ‘mind object,’ or ‘a sight—organ,’ or a ‘sound—consciousness.”[62] So this method must be counterbalanced by practice of the Unlimited. Only then can the wisdom of emptiness, which can lack warmth, be tempered by compassion. The Mahayana believed compassion to be the most powerful resource for facilitating liberation. When there is a clear perception of the suffering of others, one can begin to eliminate the ego and its ignorant desire.

To balance wisdom and compassion a Bodhisattva practices “skill in means” (upaya). Upaya is also the ability to bring out the spiritual potentialities of different people by statements or actions which are adjusted to their needs and adapted to their capacity for comprehension.[63] The notion of Upaya enabled the Mahayana to diversify its practice and thus to accommodate larger patrons of society.

It is put forward by the Mahayanists that the layperson and even householders could be Bodhisattvas who could maintain progress on the spiritual path by maintaining an ethical code put forth by Buddhism as a way of life. Since the layperson had remained in the world, this ethical code was maintained by the Five Precepts and taking refuge in the Dharma, sangha and the Buddha. The Mahayana sutra, The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti, there is an emphasis on both the layperson and the concept of upaya. It is conveyed by the life of the main character, Vimalakirti, a famous householder Bodhisattva. The text tells us of his life in the city of Vaisali, where he was a well-known enlightened teacher involved in the business and political scene. Vimalakirti taught people wherever they were and through whatever they were doing.

How does one become a Bodhisattva? How does one embark on the path of this sublime spiritual ideal? The answer necessitates an in-depth explanation. We now turn our attention to the concept of Bodhicitta, for it is the bedrock by which the ideal is built.

Bodhicitta: Embarking On the Path of the Bodhisattva

May the Bodhicitta, precious and sublime,

Arise where it has not yet come to be;

And where it has arisen may it never fail

But grow and flourish ever more and more.[64]

The term Bodhicitta means the “Thought of Enlightenment.” According to Buddhist writers, there are several considerations that should induce the average person to produce the ‘thought of bodhi.’ One is the consideration that birth as a human being is a very rare privilege. Another is that enlightenment can bring about good for the world. [65]

Often referred to as “the great spiritual poems of humanity,”[66] the Bodhicaryavatara (Entering the Path of Enlightenment), known to have been composed in Sanskrit by the Buddhist philosopher Santideva, deals with the Bodhisattva’s path to awakening. Most importantly, one of the central themes is the concept of Bodhicitta. Santideva reveals Bodhicitta primary function as an ethical commitment, which moves from aspiration to application to realization.

The term Bodhicitta can be misleading because the translation of the word “citta” implies mind, but in order to attain Bodhicitta, one has to do more then contemplate it. Bodhicitta “is not a mental state, activity or function at all.” It is not an act of will on any level and “neither is it being conscious, if by that, one merely means being conscious of the fact that there is such as thing as Enlightenment.”[67] According to Santideva, “…Bodhicitta is not a thought, not a propensity, not an idea, not a concept but a profound transcendental experience which reorients our entire being…”[68] Bodhicitta contains compounded ambiguity and shifting nuance of meaning, it is thought that it is operative on three levels of definition to which citta is susceptible. First, “the simple thought of Bodhi.” Second, “the consciousness which is permeated with the idea, which results in the total transformation of one’s personal life,” and thirdly Bodhicitta, “partakes of a quasi universal aspect, where it is a force let loose in the universe to work for the good of all.”[69]

It is commonly thought that Bodhicitta can be divided into two categories, the Bodhicitta of Aspiration and the Bodhicitta of Application (engaged). Santideva states:

Then, in short, one should know that the Bodhicitta is two fold: the mind having made a resolve for bodhi and the actual proceeding towards bodhi… Just as a difference is perceived between the one who desires to go and the one who is going, so a difference between both [types of Bodhicitta] is acknowledged by the wise men.[70]

The Aspirational Bodhicitta is the complete wish to overcome emotional afflictions and delusions and represents the intention to bring all fellow beings to the enlightened state. Two key practices associated with this stage of development are the heartfelt wish to become a Buddha to benefit all sentient beings and to pledge never to abandon this aim until it is achieved. Moving from aspiration to application, the fledgling Bodhisattva cultivates awareness and concentration. This is accomplished by never excluding even one sentient being from one’s thoughts, being conscious of the benefits ensuing from the Enlightened Attitude (Bodhicitta), and practicing the Four Immeasurables: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity.[71]

Bodhicitta is crucial to the traveler on the path of a sublime spiritual ideal of the Bodhisattva. “May I attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.”[72] This is the root Mahayana aspiration. Involved Bodhicitta means engaging in the practices that bring about this goal and taking bodhisattva vows to restrain from actions detrimental to it. Next on the path of spiritual progression is the decision to take the Bodhisattva Vow. This marks a turning point in the aspirant’s practice and to do so is usually based on the conclusion that is reached after extensive analysis and profound insight into the nature of existence. With that in mind, we now turn to the Bodhisattva Vow.
The Bodhisattva’s Vow

However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them.
However inexhaustible the defilements are, I vow to extinguish them.
However immeasurable the dharmas are, I vow to master them.
However incomparable enlightenment is, I vow to attain it.[73]

The intentional quality of the Bodhicitta naturally generates a vow. A Bodhisattva’s vow is a determination to abandon particular faults. It is traditionally made in conjunction with a ritual, an ordination consisting of two parts: the taking of the vow and the acceptance of the Bodhisattva’s precepts.[3] Numerous lists of these precepts are to be found throughout Mahayana scriptures. The precepts represent a more specific and detailed application of the vow. At the heart of the Vow is a public acceptance of the Bodhisattva Ideal that recapitulates what happened when ever someone met the historical Buddha. Upon hearing hear him teach and her “…Dharma eye would open.”[74] The taking the Vow does not award any spiritual status, for divine status. The intention of the initiatory ceremony is to leave imprints on the mind so to develop an altruistic attitude which proceeds and progresses even into future lifetimes accumulating vast amounts of merit.

When taking the Bodhisattva Vow, the trainee pledges to abstain from certain negative acts that would deter the Bodhisattva from reaching Enlightenment. In the Pratimoksha Sutra,[75] the Buddha tells us that it would be better to die than to break moral discipline because death destroys only this life, whereas breaking moral discipline will affect future lives and keep one in samsara.[76] Therefore, once the Bodhisattva Vows are taken, to prevent them from degenerating, it is crucial that the aspirant know the four main causes of the degeneration. They are: Not knowing what causes the degeneration of the vow, lack of respect for Buddha’s instructions, strong delusions and non-consciousness. Antidotes to these can be found in detailed extrapolations of the Bodhisattva Vow, known in the Mahayana traditions as The Eighteen Roots Vows and Forty-Six Secondary Vows.[4]

Even if not formally embraced, the Bodhisattva Vow and the numerous other vows it entails provide constructive guiding principles on how to properly proceed on the Bodhisattva Path. Mahayanists hold that one should take the time to become familiar with the vows before taking them. That way one can avoid the discovery later on that they are unable to keep them. Great emphasis is put on this point because these vows are a mammoth commitment, as they are not just taken for this life, but all future lives as well. The Mahayanist believes that breaking a root vow completely nullifies one’s Bodhisattva ordination, whereas breaking a secondary or branch vow does not, though it damages it. If one has nullified the Bodhisattva Vow by breaking a root vow, one can restore the vow by re-taking the vows in front of at least four people who understand and hold the vow themselves (preferably fully ordained monks), generating a sincere regret and an intention not to repeat the same mistake again.[1] If there is nobody available, one can restore the vows in front of a Buddha statue or visualization.[77] After a sincere confession and restoring of the vows, the original negative consequences cannot be undone, but at least the negative karma stops increasing further.

After taking the vows the aspirant begins to train and develop the mind with the practice of the Six Paramitas or perfections. We now turn the Six Perfections, which once perfected, provide a perfectly clear mind by which the accumulated obscuration and habitual tendencies of mind through countless lifetimes will be perfectly purified.[78]

The Paramitas

If we wish to become Enlightened, but do not practice the six perfections, we are like someone who wants to go somewhere but does not actually set out on the journey.[79]

The Bodhisattva Path comprises a number of perfections (paramitas). They are described as “the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles” and are said to confer prosperity and happiness on all creatures. They are considered the Bodhisattva’s refuge and shelter.[80] Buddhist texts differ somewhat as to their identity and number. Their common significance rests in the intention to transcend the limitations of the ordinary self. All the paramitas encourage control of the mind and body. Six perfections are described in the Perfection of Wisdom Literature. Four other were added to match the number of stages (ten) thought to comprise the Bodhisattva Path. I will deal with the six-fold formulation. The Six Perfections are: charity (dana), moral conduct (sila), patience (ksanti), strength (virya), contemplation (dhyana) and wisdom (prajna). [5]

The origin of the six-fold formula of the paramitas can be found in the early Buddhist triad, Sila (virtuous conduct), Samadhi (concentration) and Prajna (wisdom), the three cikas (branches of instruction)[81] that comprise the Eightfold Path. The Mahayana reformulated The Eightfold Path as the Path of the Paramitas by adding the social virtues of the layperson with the ascetic ideals of a meditative monk. ”Thus,” according to Dayal, “they [the Mahayana] bridged the gap that yawned between popular and monastic Buddhism. They taught that a Bodhisattva should not cease to practice charity and forbearance in social life when he ascended to the higher stages of Concentration and Wisdom.”[82]

The paramitas are in a particular order, to imply that one builds upon another in a progressive scheme of action.[83] The practice of each paramita is impossible without the cultivation of the proceeding one and has three degrees: ordinary, extraordinary, or superlatively extraordinary. The ordinary is practiced by the common worldly person for the sake of happiness in this life or the next. It is extraordinary when it is cultivated by the Theravada for the sake of personal nirvana, but the highest degree is when it is perfected by the Mahayanist Bodhisattvas for the welfare of others. All the Perfections require attentive, thought resolute purpose, self-mastery and wisdom in the choice of means.
The Perfection of Charity (dana)

Here a Bodhisattva gives a gift and he does not apprehend a self, nor a recipient, nor a gift; also no reward of his giving. He surrenders that gift to all beings, but apprehends neither beings nor self. He dedicates that gift to supreme Enlightenment, but he does not apprehend Enlightenment. This is called the supramundane perfection of giving[84].

The first paramita is dana, "giving" or “charity” and centers on the concern for others by being altruistic in thought, speech and acts. This stage of the path concentrates on developing the perfection of generosity to a high degree, achieved by giving away wealth, teachings, life, limbs and even a spouse and family for the benefit of others. The practice of renunciation is almost synonymous with dana, though the former is not formally considered one of the six paramitas. In order to achieve dana, it is necessary to rid oneself of materialistic tendencies and selfishness by exhibiting kindness to others and to be openhanded to those who lack.[85]

Dana paramita emphasizes how, what, when and why one should give. Buddhist literature focuses on the motives, both high and low, that may inspire a donor. The lowest would be for selfish reasons such as the deliberate seeking for power, longevity, pride or merit. The highest would be for the genuine care and concern for others without desire for rewards of any sort. Cultivating generosity is dependent upon the attitude behind generosity and the latter is of utmost importance; giving with anger or the desire for payment is not a good motivation.[86] Dana can be motivated and inspired only by love, pity, mercy and compassion. There is something more precious than a Bodhisattva’s wealth, limbs and family and that is Merit (punya), often defined as parinama (bending round or towards, transfer or dedication). The idea of punya is one of the central concepts of Buddhism. The merit gained from such acts is said to further one’s quest for Buddhahood.

It is thought that a Bodhisattva should help all supplicants, but the latter are sometimes divided into three levels of priority. First, the Bodhisattva should help friends and relatives, secondly, the sick, the needy, the poor and the helpless, and thirdly, Buddhist monks.[87] A Bodhisattva should use discretion in the choice of gifts and should not give anything which may be used to inflict injury on other living things and should refrain from supplying others with the means of gratifying their sensual appetites and passions such as: alcohol, nets to capture animals, weapons and instruments of torture or for suicide.[88] The practice of Dana is harmonious with sila. Together they are recognized as the laymen’s special duties, which paved the way to happy re-births. It was held that dana was the first step that an ordinary person was to take and it was placed before sila as a distinct duty, though it logically included moral conduct.[89]
The Perfection of Morality (sila)

Where can fish and others be led, from whence I may not destroy them? But when thought of cessation is obtained, that is regarded as the perfection of conduct (sila paramita). [90]

The second paramita sila or morality requires the practice of the Five Precepts[6] before starting proceeding to the other paramitas. The root of the word sil means to exercise or practice. Sila encourages meritorious deeds as is the bedrock of all the framework of Buddhist teachings. Sila is said to be a golden ship by which one can cross the ocean of Samsara. Without sila, there is no concentration or meditation and therefore spiritual advancement cannot be achieved and one must have a solid groundwork of sila.

The Bodhisattva concentrates on sila until her conduct becomes spontaneously pure. In addition, the Bodhisattva urges others to avoid immorality. Sila includes all the ordinary virtues, and associated with the ideals of purification and restraint of body, speech and mind.[91] To practice the perfection of sila means to refrain from doing harm to yourself and all those around you. Killing, sexual misconduct, consuming harmful substances such as alcohol or drugs, being deceitful and using abusive language must be avoided. All harmful actions are caused by a mind that harbors them; therefore, it’s highly important to be mindful of all thoughts.

According to the accepted Buddhist doctrine, the body can be controlled and purified by practicing the abstention of killing a living being, theft and unchastity. Speech can be controlled and purified by abstaining from untruthfulness, slander, harsh or impolite speech and senseless talk. The mind can be purified by the avoidance of malevolence and wrong views.[92] When the body, speech and mind are purified by the perfection of sila, there is a sense of freedom. In general sila is an attempt to eradicate the three basic faults poisons. These are raga (passion, lust, sense desire), dvesa (hatred, or ill will) and moha (delusion or folly).[93] Even if sila is perfected in oneself, the ability see through the delusions of the poisons in others requires the perfection ksanti.
The Perfection of Patience (ksanti)

Hostility destroys all the moral conduct, charity and reverence of Buddhas, which has been achieved in thousands of aeons. No evil is equal to hatred and no austerity is equal to patience. Therefore, one ought diligently to cultivate patience by a variety of means.[94]

The third paramita is the perfection of patience or “ksanti,” the kindly perception that others' failings are no worse and perhaps less severe than one's own. Ksanti is praised as the Perfection of Forbearance and Endurance. The Bodhisattva cultivates these virtues in their full range by forgiving others for all kinds of injury, insult, abuse and censure. The Bodhisattva must forgive in both private and public, at all times and must forgive past, present and future transgressions with his body, mind and spirit. In order to achieve the perfection of ksanti, the Bodhisattva should cultivate certain modes of thoughts and to understand why he should forgive others by keeping in mind the words of the historical Buddha: “The strength of a religious teacher is his patience.” [95] Knowing that there is no permanent substantial individuality in any being, an enemy in this life may be a friend, a relative or teacher of a past life and should be regarded as such. Those perceived enemies are not free agents; their previous actions are produced by causes over which they have no control, just as disease originates in physiological conditions. Enemies are only instruments of the cosmic law of karma.[96]

Patience (ksanti) is the antidote to anger, “… [ksanti is] nothing other than absolute tolerance directed primarily against all forms of hatred.”[97] The Mahayana believe that since hatred causes the destruction of all merit, it is pragmatic that a Bodhisattva must practice patience; otherwise the negative effects will radiate out in both this life and to all worlds to come. The practice of patience develops a certain type of mental attitude, which can overcome suffering, whether its source is bodily or spiritual. Ksanti must be all encompassing and uncompromising in its nature since patience alleviates sorrow.

Tolerance is attained if one understands the pattern of causation and that all beings are part of an enormous network of causation which creates suffering. Matics states:

On one hand there is nothing to excuse, because cause and effect are illusionary in character and there is no relation or connection between them… all beings are excused because they are immersed in the terrible mesh of interrelated causality which is the illusionary world of everyday perception in which all things are relative in character to all other things.[98]

Unhealthy mana (pride) hinders forbearance. Pride is very dangerous, destructive and demoralizing. Therefore, a Bodhisattva should be humble in spirit. The Bodhisattva is urged to strive not to hate nor despise an enemy or to capitalize on his injuries. Perceived enemies are not obstacles, but a person’s own self-preoccupation is. Self-preoccupation and hatred must be eradicated, not the object of hatred. The Bodhisattva’s enemies become the greatest tool to learn about the truth of life. The main concept of the ksanti paramita is that there is nothing to condemn because there is neither existence nor nonexistence of beings. A Bodhisattva exercises ksanti of the highest and most difficult kind by the realization of insight into the real Law and Truth of the universe. This is accomplished by thoughtfully and diligently investigating the Doctrine. Such ksanti is developed only through pure knowledge and persistent practice, which takes strength or virya.
The Perfection of Strength (virya)

Thus having become patient, one should become heroic (virya), for Enlightenment is gained by standing strong. Without strength (virya), there is no merit as without the wind there is no movement. What is strength? Proper effort. What is adversary? Sloth: attachment to contemptible things, despair, self-despising.[99]

The fourth paramita calls for concentration on virya (strength); this is accomplished by a developing compassion and an increasing energy. Virya is a multifaceted and comprehensive term. The word “virya” is derived from vira, which literally means “the state of a strong man, vigor, strength, heroism and courage.”[100] Virya is also known as diligence and as the enthusiastic effort that is necessary if one wants to achieve anything, especially something as noble and challenging as joining the ranks of the Bodhisattvas. The way of the Bodhisattva is arduous and requires fearlessness, which is yet another aspect of virya and a result of the practice of patience. Virya is often praised by the Mahayanist writers; its fundamental importance is indicated in unequivocal terms. Enlightenment depends entirely on virya; where there is virya, there is bodhi and it is better to live one day with virya then a lifetime without. The Bodhisattva needs to cultivate virya to destroy all darkness of ignorance to ensure its success counteracts all fears and evil proclivities.[101]

Viyra can be cultivated by way of religious studies, healthy pride and careful and mindful undertakings. The Bodhisattva dispels hatred by the energetic cultivation of love and has to exert himself continually in his studies. The Bodhisattva devotes his energy to five principal subjects of study: Buddhist Philosophy, logic, dialectics, grammar, medicine and arts and crafts. Diligence in these studies enables the Bodhisattva to transport the dharma to the people, heal the sick and confer benefits on all.[102] The Bodhisattva utilizes all his knowledge to live an altruistic way of life. With knowledge, the Bodhisattva can live by two great principles, “Equality of self and others” and “Regard of others in place of self.”[103]

Another important ally to virya is healthy pride as it may be properly utilized for the furtherance of the Bodhisattva. Pride generally has negative connotations but in this context, pride (mana) means a lively spirit and a sense of respect and honor for oneself. Mana, in the sense of proper self-respect, is a pervasive virtue and it may be noticed as an underlying theme in many utterances of the Bodhisattva as he undertakes the great task of the emancipation of all beings. Pride is to be employed in three ways: in work, in opposition to passion, and in strength.[104]

For the Bodhisattva, the attempt to liberate of all beings comes with a warning not to undertake that which they do not seriously intend to accomplish. Once on the Path of the Bodhisattva, strength is needed to accomplish this responsibility. Careful and mindful consideration and preparation must be taken before committing oneself to the path. Failure only results in karmic demerits and increase of sorrow. Virya is a mental activity and exactly like Dana, Sila and Ksanti, is crucial to the tranquility of citta. It is a quality of Mindfulness; of being alert that the passions may not pervade the citta and the attainment of concentration.
The Perfection of Concentration (dhyana)

Having thus increased one’s energy, the mind should be established in meditation (Samadhi), since the man of agitated mind stands between fangs of passion…By means of tranquility (samatha) one achieves clarity of vision (vipasyana). Tranquil person destroys passion when he has become tranquil...[105]

The fifth perfection is dhyana (concentration) allows the ultimate goal, the emptying of oneself and an oneness with Absolute Truth. The root dhyai means to think of, imagine, contemplate, call to mind and recollect. The perfection of concentration is the mind's ability to stay focused. To develop concentration, one has to discipline and stabilize the mind and refine the intellect. It is also necessary to pay constant attention to the first four perfections. In contrast to the four previous paramitas, the perfection of concentration shifts attention from the world without to the world within. This is often one of the hardest of the paramitas to complete since it is elusive in nature and the hardest to ‘find’. Matics states that “… [dhyana is] to pass through the door of the mind to other regions of experience than those provided by the common faculties of thought and sense perception.”[106]

It is thought that it takes extreme asceticism to be able to concentrate one’s faculties in order to fully realize the Dharma. Dayal points out that many critics associate dhyana with the realm of asceticism. In contrast, Mahayana literature often supports that dhyana paramita is not limited to monks, for example, The Vimalakirti Sutra reveals that both laymen and Bodhisattvas can experience dhyana without complete renunciation.

A Bodhisattva who begins to practice dhyana must go through a preliminary stage of preparation involving renunciation and solitude. Some writers of Sanskrit literature state that life in the home has “hindrances while the monk’s life is like open air.”[107] The method to make the mind stable and attentive is meditation (Sanskrit: bhavana). A concentrated mind that is familiar to contemplation makes it possible to attain states of meditative absorption (Sanskrit: samadhi). The Pali canon and the historical Buddha stressed the importance of absorption, because when the mind is unwavering, the production and destruction of the appearances of dharmas in the physical world can be known. For this reason, Buddhist practice constantly and vigorously cultivates concentration. Buddhist teachings describe a wide range of meditative practices. There are two essential kinds, Samatha-bhavana and Vipassana.

Samatha-bhavana is calm abiding meditation. It is referred to as the perfect absorption of mind within mind and is often thought of as a means to cultivate a mind that is not disturbed by mental wandering. Developing a calm mind sharpens concentration. Being able to focus single-pointedly on one object with a non-wavering mind is a great advantage to the Bodhisattva. It is thought that by enabling a calm-abiding mind aids in the development of clairvoyance and the ability to heal others. Disciplined attention enables the practitioner to have an unfaltering focus on the perfections, and to form a clearer understanding of all the paramitas as well as of Buddha’s teachings.

Vipassana is insight meditation, also known as analytical meditation, with which it is possible to gain insight into the true nature of reality. Vipassana is a way of self-transformation through self-observation by focusing on the interconnection between mind and body. The goal is to dissolve mental impurity, resulting in a balanced mind full of love and compassion.

Classically, there are nine distinct states of dhyana. The first four of these states are known as the four dhyanas and the last five are known as samapattis (attainments).[7] The historical Buddha attained the four dhyanas on the night of his Enlightenment and is said to have passed into Nirvana from the fourth dhyana. The first dhyana is freedom from sensual pleasures and demeritorious states of mind. The second is the cessation of reflection and investigation by concentrating the mind on one point. The third dhyana renounces the attachment of joy and becomes devoid of joy. The fourth dhyana is the abandonment of pain and pleasure through mindfulness. The five samapattis has five stages are supposed to bring a Bodhisattva into direct contact with different worlds and spheres. [108]

The aim of every Buddhist meditative technique is to liberate the psychic faculties from disturbance. Tranquility and an awareness of ultimate truth are the results of this liberation.[109] It is by way of dhyana that a Bodhisattva can end attachment and fully realize interdependent arising. The Bodhisattva then can be among the madness of the world and be untouched by the madness. The ultimate goal of dhyana is the unity of a mind that rests in equanimity and understands reality with perfect clarity. The unification of a stabilized, calm, abiding mind with a mind that achieves penetrating insight is necessary to overcome disturbing emotions. By the power of dhyana, the Bodhisattva can attain prajna paramita, the perfection of wisdom, through the understanding of emptiness.
The Perfection of Wisdom (prajna)

The Buddha taught that this multitude [of virtues} is all for the sake of wisdom (prajna); hence, by means of one’s desire for the extinction of sorrow, let wisdom arise. It is understood that truth is of two kinds; the veiled truth (samvrti) and the truth, which is concerned with that which is beyond the veiled (paramartha). True reality is beyond the range of understanding (buddhi); so, understanding is called veiled.[110]

Prajna paramita is the knowledge of truth. It is said that tradition may speak of six or ten perfections but in a sense, there is only one: prajna paramita, the perfection of wisdom, the direct realization of reality. The understanding of emptiness can be briefly summarized as insight into the true nature of interdependently arising phenomenon. When the conscious mind is completely free of its usual dualistic thinking in terms of self and objects, it undergoes a transformation which renders it pure, blissful, compassionate, deeply satisfying and revelatory. To Bodhisattva in this state, all of reality appears as one vast and pure 'thusness' or 'suchness', which is also often described in the prajna paramita literature as 'like space' or 'like a dream.’[111]

It is held that prajna admits of three phases, each phase is important because the latter depends on the former. The first phase is wisdom through hearing and studying the teachings' words and meaning. Next is the wisdom through critical and analytical investigation of reality. Thirdly is wisdom through insight gained in meditation (dhyana).

The first phase in developing wisdom is to listen to and study the Shakyamuni Buddha's doctrine. The second phase is the critical examination of reality. A fundamental investigation that the Mahayana teachings advise is to start searching for what one calls "self" or "ego.” Close examination will reveal that the ego is impossible to locate within oneself. In fact, no phenomenon one investigates exists, as it appears to do. It seems to have an inherent existence, but through analyzing it, one will see that it does not. The teachings explain that this means that the nature of all phenomena is empty. By analyzing reality repeatedly in this way, one can develop a firm intellectual understanding of emptiness. This conceptual understanding is a necessary step to developing transcendental wisdom, but the direct realization of emptiness is only possible through meditation. Transcendental wisdom, the final goal, is the effect of practicing the perfections.

Conclusion

…to understand the Mind of Enlightenment, … is to understand all the myriad worlds of illusion through which we are said to be swept by Karma, … to understand exactly how to escape from those terrible worlds,…it is to find out…what lies beyond them…and to be what lies beyond them. It is not only to understand all things, but it is to be all things. It is to become oneself the Mind of the Bodhisattva and then to realize there is no Mind…there is no Bodhisattva.[112]

It was the purpose of this study to investigate a number of themes which are at the heart of the Bodhisattva ideal. An exploration of the Bodhisattva path has revealed first and foremost that the Mahayana regards the Bodhisattva as an actual religious goal for the lay and monastic Buddhists as well as the name for a class of celestial beings who are worshipped along with Buddha. The key difference between the Bodhisattva Ideal and the earlier arhat ideal is that the Bodhisattva Ideal centers on a compassionate vow to postpone Nirvana until all sentient beings are similarly enlightened. The keystones to their teachings were on essential purity of consciousness which generated ideas of potential Buddhahood in all living beings. To further distinguish itself from the Theravada, The Mahayana developed a number of doctrines namely the Trikaya and the Perfection of Wisdom literature. The Trikaya pertains to the eternal and absolute nature of Buddha, which embraces the belief that the historical Buddha is only a manifestation. The Perfection of Wisdom literature was pervaded by the concept that all things are empty. The Bodhisattva Path begins with the initiatory spark of Bodhicitta and in conjunction with the Bodhisattva vow and a life long cultivation of the six paramitas journeys toward Buddhahood.

The Bodhisattva Ideal is dedicated to raising all sentient creatures to higher ground. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition believes that humans are conditioned by ignorance and the illusion of a finite self. Its solution to the problem is to overcome the fundamental blindness of the ego. The Mahayana teaching of the Bodhisattva is meant to restore our vision, to elevate and transform the contours of the human condition. The Bodhisattva Path is a journey towards Enlightenment, ceaseless process of advancement towards wisdom and compassion. The goal of this journey is eternally achieved and eternally in the process of being achieved.

The Heartwood

Grand Daddy Oak

Wednesday, August 12, 2009

The Camera Obscura through the Integral Lens

Wednesday, August 5, 2009

HEART AND MIND OF ENLIGHTENMENT: A STUDY OF THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

Sunday, August 2, 2009

Vicissitudes

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